The Triangle of Meaning: Skopos, Functionalism, and Cultural Contexts.

Effective communication between different languages and cultures goes beyond mere word-for-word translation. It requires a deep understanding of the purpose, context, and cultural nuances embedded within the message. In the field of British Sign Language (BSL) and English interpreting/translation, applying theories such as Skopos and Functionalism is essential to ensure that the intended meaning is accurately and appropriately conveyed. This blog post explores these theories and their practical application in BSL-English interpreting/translation, highlighting the professional’s role in processing and delivering meaningful communication.

Understanding Skopos Theory and Functionalism

What is Skopos Theory?

Skopos Theory is a fundamental concept in translation and interpreting studies developed by German linguist Hans J. Vermeer in the late 1970s. The term "Skopos" is derived from the Greek word meaning "purpose" or "aim." This theory posits that the primary determinant of any translation or interpretation should be its intended purpose in the target context. Du (2012)

Key Principles of Skopos Theory:

• Purpose Driven Translation: The translator or interpreter should focus on the intended function of the target text or utterance, ensuring it meets the needs and expectations of the target audience.

• Audience Centric Approach: Understanding the cultural, social, and situational context of the target audience is crucial for effective communication.

• Adaptation Over Literalism: Translators and interpreters are encouraged to adapt the source message to fit the target context(to ensure understanding), even if it means deviating from a literal translation, to preserve the original intent and effectiveness.

Understanding Functionalism

Functionalism in translation and interpreting is a theoretical approach that complements Skopos theory by focusing on the practical purpose or function of a text in the target language and culture. Rather than viewing translation as a purely linguistic process where words and sentences are converted from one language to another, functionalism posits that the success of a translation/interpretation should be measured by how well it achieves its intended purpose for its audience.

The Origins of Functionalism in Translation

Functionalism as a concept in translation studies emerged in the late 20th century, primarily in Germany, as part of a broader movement to rethink traditional notions of equivalence in interpreting and translation. Traditional approaches often emphasised the importance of fidelity to the source text, prioritising a close, word-for-word translation. However, this method often failed to account for the cultural and contextual differences between languages, leading to translations that, while technically accurate, did not effectively communicate the intended meaning or function of the original source message.

Functionalism, championed by theorists like Katharina Reiß (Riess), Hans Vermeer, and Christiane Nord, arose as a response to these limitations. Reiß’s work on text types laid the groundwork for understanding how different kinds of texts (e.g., informative, expressive, operative) require different translation strategies. Vermeer’s Skopos theory, which is closely aligned with functionalism, then introduced the idea that the purpose (or skopos) of the translation is the primary guiding factor in determining how a text should be translated or interation should be interpreted.

Christiane Nord (2022) further developed these ideas, focusing on the translator’s role in ensuring that the translation functions appropriately within the target culture. Nord (2016) emphasised the importance of understanding the communicative situation and the expectations of the target audience. In this view, the translator is seen not just as a linguistic mediator but as a cultural mediator, responsible for ensuring that the translation works effectively in the target context.

Functionalism in Practice: The Role of the Interpreter/Translator

For interpreters and translators, functionalism means that their work goes beyond simply transferring words and grammatical structures from one language to another. It involves a deep understanding of the communicative intent behind the source message and a commitment to ensuring that this intent is preserved and made accessible to the target audience.

In the context of BSL-English interpreting, this approach is crucial due to the significant differences between British Sign Language and English in terms of grammar, syntax, and cultural references. BSL is a visual language that relies heavily on spatial grammar and facial expressions, while English is a spoken language with a linear structure and different cultural norms. Functionalism, therefore, guides interpreters to focus on the meaning and purpose of the source message, adapting it as necessary to ensure that it is clear and appropriate for the target audience.

For example, when a doctor in an English-speaking context asks a patient, "How can I help you today?" the interpreter understands that the function of this question is to prompt the patient to describe their reason for the visit. In BSL, where direct translation might not capture this nuance, the interpreter might render the question as "(you) come what for" or "(you) come why," using a more culturally and linguistically appropriate form and incorporating appropriate use of non-manual features to show politeness markers /questioning. The goal is to ensure that the Deaf client fully grasps the doctor’s intent, facilitating effective communication.

Similarly, in a scenario where an English idiom like "It's raining cats and dogs" is used, the interpreter must consider the function of the idiom—communicating that it is raining very heavily—and find a way to convey this meaning in BSL. Instead of attempting a literal translation, which would be confusing, the interpreter might use a sign and NMF to signify heavy rainfall, ensuring that the meaning is clear and culturally relevant to the Deaf audience.

Functionalism and Cultural Mediation

One of the key aspects of functionalism is the idea of cultural mediation. Interpreters and translators are not just bridging linguistic gaps; they are also bridging cultural gaps. This involves understanding not only the languages involved but also the cultural contexts in which they are used. What might be an appropriate or effective expression in one culture could be completely misinterpreted or ineffective in another. Therefore, functionalism requires interpreters and translators to be attuned to these cultural differences and to adapt their strategies accordingly.

In BSL-English interpreting, this might involve adapting not just idiomatic expressions but also non-verbal cues, culturally specific references, or different ways of structuring information. For example, in a medical setting, when a doctor asks a Deaf client, "What’s your pain on a scale of 1-10?" the interpreter might need to adjust the message to ensure the Deaf client fully understands the question. In some cases, this numerical pain scale might not be familiar or meaningful to the client. The interpreter might need to reframe the question by asking something like, "How bad is your pain—very bad, a little bad, or not much at all?" to convey the same concept in a way that’s culturally and linguistically appropriate while still capturing the doctor’s intent.

The BiBi Model and Its Connection to Functionalism

What is the BiBi Model?

The Bilingual-Bicultural (BiBi) Model is an approach in interpreting and translation that recognises and values the linguistic and cultural identities of both Deaf and hearing communities. This model, which was developed by Etilvia Arajona, a pioneering spoken language interpreter, emphasises the importance of fluency and cultural competence in both the source and target languages and cultures. In the context of interpreting, the BiBi model stresses that interpreters must not only be skilled in the languages they work with but also deeply knowledgeable about the cultural contexts in which these languages are used. (Arajona cited in Roy 1993)

By advocating for a bilingual-bicultural approach, Arajona highlighted the need for interpreters to navigate the cultural nuances that influence communication. This model aligns closely with functionalism, which prioritises the purpose and function of communication over a direct, word-for-word translation. For BSL-English interpreters/translators, the BiBi model, supported by functionalism, provides a framework that allows for meaningful and culturally appropriate interpretation/translation, ensuring that the message resonates with the target audience while respecting their cultural identity.

In practice, this means that interpreters/translators working within the BiBi framework, guided by functionalist principles, are able to make informed decisions about how best to convey meaning across cultural and linguistic divides. This approach is particularly valuable in situations where direct translations might fail to capture the full intent or cultural significance of the source message, allowing interpreters/translators to fulfil their role as effective cultural mediators.

Principles of the BiBi Model:

• Bilingual Competence: Mastery of both BSL and English, including their linguistic structures, idiomatic expressions, and registers.

• Bicultural Understanding: Deep appreciation and understanding of both Deaf and hearing cultures, norms, values, and communication styles.

• Mediating Between Cultures: The interpreter acts as a cultural mediator, facilitating understanding and respect between Deaf and hearing individuals.

Linking the BiBi Model to Skopos Theory and Functionalism

Application in Practice:

• Purposeful Communication: Understanding why a message is being communicated and what outcome is desired, then tailoring the interpretation accordingly.

• Cultural Adaptation: Adjusting language use and expressions to fit the cultural context of the target audience, ensuring clarity and appropriateness.

• Enhancing Mutual Understanding: Facilitating not just linguistic translation but also cultural understanding, reducing potential misunderstandings or offenses.

Processing Meaning in BSL English Interpreting/translation

Importance of Contextual and Cultural Awareness

Effective processing of meaning requires interpreters to be highly aware of contextual and cultural nuances. Misinterpretation can occur when cultural references, idioms, or expressions are translated literally without considering their meaning in the target culture.

Adhering strictly to the source language's structure and expressions can lead to misunderstandings and ineffective communication. Interpreters and translators must have the flexibility and competence to deviate from literal translations to maintain the integrity and purpose of the original message.

Strategies for Effective Meaning Based Interpretation/translation:

• Use of Equivalence: Finding target language expressions that elicit the same response or understanding as the source message.

• Simplification and Clarification: Adjusting complex or culturally specific content into more universally understandable terms without diluting the message.

• WDIM: in all instances consider the ‘aim’ of the communication (Skopos) and consider the meaning behind word and phrases (especially if they are new or unfamiliar/complex. Use WDIM as a helpful reminder. What Does It Mean.

Reducing Cognitive Load for Clients

By effectively processing and conveying meaning, interpreters/translators reduce the cognitive load on clients both hearing and Deaf, making communication smoother and more efficient. Clients should not have to decipher or interpret the message further; the interpreter's/iranslator’s role is to present it in the most accessible and understandable form.

Benefits of Reducing Cognitive Load:

• Enhanced Understanding: Clients can grasp the message quickly and accurately without additional effort.

• Improved Engagement: Clear and effective communication fosters better participation and interaction.

• Increased Trust: Clients develop confidence in the interpreter's ability to facilitate meaningful and respectful communication.

  
  

Challenges and Responsibilities in Meaning Based Interpreting

Common Challenges:

• Access to the Source Language: There are times when clients either Deaf or Hearing will need access to the original source language and this requires the skill of the interpreter/translator in partnership with the client to know when to ensure that this is provided. For example, special terms or phases in English that a deaf client might need access to for study or work purposes or a hearing therapist needing access to the original thoughts and statements in mental health or police settings. Including such intrusions form a source language in the target language rendition is called ´foreignising’ and this will be covered in one of the upcoming blog posts.

• Cultural Misalignments: Navigating significant cultural differences between source and target audiences can be complex.

• Idiomatic and Metaphorical Language: Finding appropriate equivalents for idioms and metaphors requires creativity and deep linguistic knowledge.

• Emotionally Charged Content: Accurately conveying tone and emotion while maintaining professionalism.

• Rapid or Dense Information: Processing and interpreting fast paced or information heavy dialogues without loss of meaning.

 Interpreter's/Translator’s Responsibilities:

• Continuous Learning: Staying updated with linguistic and cultural developments in both languages and communities.

• Ethical Practice: Maintaining confidentiality, impartiality, and professionalism in all settings.

• Preparation: Familiarising oneself with relevant subject matter and context before assignments.

• Reflection and Improvement: Regularly evaluating and refining interpreting strategies and performances.

Conclusion

Applying Skopos Theory and Functionalism in BSL English interpreting/translation is essential for delivering meaningful and effective communication between Deaf and hearing individuals. By focusing on the purpose and function of messages, interpreters/translators serve as vital bridges across languages and cultures, ensuring that the intended meaning is preserved and appropriately conveyed.

Embracing a meaning-based approach enhances understanding, and upholds the professionalism and integrity of the interpreting/translation practice. As interpreters/translators continue to develop their skills and cultural competencies, they contribute significantly to breaking down communication barriers and promoting equal access to information and services for all individuals.

Whether you're an experienced interpreter/translator, a student of translation/interpreting studies, or someone interested in cross-cultural communication, understanding and applying these theories can profoundly impact the effectiveness and quality of your work. Let's continue to prioritise meaningful, purpose driven communication in all our interpreting and translating endeavours.

References

Arajona, E. cited in Roy, C. B. ‘The problem with definitions, descriptions and the role of metaphors of interpreters’. (1993). Journal of Interpretation (RID).

Du, X. (2012) ‘A brief introduction of Skopos Theory’, Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(10). doi:10.4304/tpls.2.10.2189-2193.

Nord, C. (2016) Function + Loyalty: Theology Meets Skopos. Open Theology, Vol. 2 (Issue 1). https://doi.org/10.1515/opth-2016-0045

Nord, C. (2022) ‘Functionalism’. Zenodo. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.6366945.